Tracing British history and legacy in INDIA (simplified version) : PART 1- The Presidency

On May 20, 1498 Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese explorer and merchant became the first European to discover the sea route to India. He dropped anchor first at Kozhikode (Calicut) and then Kochi. The Portuguese thus became the first European colonists thereby opening the sea route to India.

Table of Content

SURAT

MADRAS

BOMBAY

CALCUTTA 

Further reading 📖

• The Pursuit for Trade monopoly 
• The Pursuit for Governance 

Surat- the first port of  call [1600- 1615 CE] 

1600 CE- The British Stock Exchange Company or what came to be called as The British East India Company was founded by John Watts and Robert White with the purpose of establishing trade with India and other Asian countries. The company was a private undertaking wherein British aristocrats and merchants had a major share in its holdings at the time.

But before we go any further, let us get a brief picture of India as it existed when the British first set foot on Indian soil.

Map of India at the time British East India company was formed

The Mughal Empire under emperor Akbar stretched from Bengal in the east to Afghanistan in the northwest with Agra as its capital.

The Portuguese had gained considerable ground in establishing various pockets along the west coast of India, one of them being Daman. The Portuguese commanded supremacy over the seas and the Indian ocean in general that despite being in control of Gujarat, Emperor Akbar preferred to stay clear of the Portuguese at Daman.

Akbar's stand in establishing trade with England was already clear when in 1600 a letter from the Queen was received for this purpose. But Akbar died on 3 Oct 1605 leaving his empire into the hands of his son Jehangir.

24 Aug 1608- It was Capt. Sir William Hawkins a British explorer and diplomat of the East India company who disembarked at Surat. His objective was  to proceed to Agra and meet the Mughal emperor Jehangir in order to establish trade relations. Sir Hawkins was the first envoy of King James I and he carried with him 25,000 pieces of gold and a letter to the Emperor. But his efforts were in vain! Despite struggling for over  2 years in seeking trade concessions he was robbed of his wealth and was forced to return to England empty-handed.

It was on their 10th voyage that the company led by Capt. Thomas Best once again reached Surat on 5 Sept 1612.

22 September 1612- the day that changed history

Due to multiple failures in establishing trade relations in India, this time King James I made a charter that stated; should this attempt fail, the British would quit India for good. On 22 Sept 1612 Captain Best made yet another attempt to seek permission from Emperor Jehangir. Meanwhile, the Portuguese fiercely safeguarding their interests in nearby Daman presented severe hostilities for the British.

💡 Surat, Gujarat was the main port for the Mughals, hence the British landed here during their initial days.

After putting up a stiff resistance, with the Portuguese in The Battle of Suvali in Oct-Nov 1612 (Suvali is a place just slightly north of Surat), Captain Thomas Best came out victorious. And so the 10th voyage continued! 

The English success of the Battle of Suvali impressed Sardar Khan the Governor of Gujarat that he spoke highly about it, thus tilting the Emperor's favor towards the British over the Portuguese.

Jan 1613- the East India company was granted permission to establish its 1st factory in Surat.

The first factory of the East India company was set in 1613 at Surat, Gujarat. Traces of the factory are now completely obliterated.

The building was a solid two storey structure in the local style of the time. The British East India company traded in spices, silk, cotton, indigo dye, tea and saltpetre*.

*Saltpetre is an ingredient used for making gunpowder.

Who would have imagined that an Empire would take shape here on!

The British East India company began by trading in spices, silk, cotton, indigo dye, tea and saltpetre

 

Sunrise in Surat, Gujarat

1615- The British East India company's ambitions takes wings 

The company's business progressed and profits increased imbuing a sense of confidence and ambition overall. In 1615, British monarch James I now commissioned Sir Thomas Roe with the task of meeting Emperor Jehangir seeking permission to expand their operations in other areas of the Mughal Empire.

Easily said than done; Roe spent close to 4 years in Agra. William Dalrymple in his book The Anarchy - The East India Company and Corporate Violence... gives a vivid account of Emperor Jehangir's mood swings; from being fascinated to  mostly giving a damn about the British and Sir Thomas Roe in particular. Roe laments about the quarters he resided in during this period. The Emperor was extravagant with a fondness for red wine and Roe had brought along with him crates of red wine besides other expensive presents. Jehangir on the other hand brushed aside any serious trade discussions on several occasions. 

Sir Thomas Roe's efforts finally bore fruit in 1615 when Emperor Jehangir issued a firman (imperial order) approving the British to set factories in Mughal dominion. 

1619- On the basis of Mughal Imperial patronage, the company had no doubt set up a trading post in Surat. But the initial days weren't easy, as they faced tough challenges from their already established Dutch and Portuguese counterparts on this side of the globe. 

A visit to modern day Surat: a city famous for diamonds and textile trade

Fort St.George, Madras: getting a foothold in South India 

22 Aug 1639- East India Company signs a deed for land in the village of Madraspatnam.

The Vijayanagara empire in the South splintered into numerous principalities, one being a Nayaka (chieftain) named Damarla Venkatadri Nayakadu was in charge of Wandiwash. After obtaining his permission, the British East India company now planned on setting up another trading post in Madras (present-day Chennai), which was then just a piece of wasteland. 

A scene of East India Company officials embarking & disembarking at Madras

The British then formed this settlement of factory workers and merchants, mainly Britishers who lived and worked where Fort St.George stands today.

An earlier representation of Fort St. George CHENNAI

Unlike other impregnable forts in India, Fort St. George lacks the defences, probably since it was meant to serve as a commerce warehouse. Since inception of the fort, the policy of the company was that 'war is bad for trade'. Inspite of several incursions by the marching armies, Madras held on to its flourishing trade with a small army. 

1749- 1857: The period of generals and sepoys

The French who were in control of nearby Puducherry (Pondicherry) captured the fort; and the English learnt the lesson. Major Stringer Lawrence was sent to Madras to organise a large army of the company at Fort St.George, and that is how the first modern unit of the Indian army; The 1st Madras Regiment was formed. Major Lawrence also introduced Robert Clive (whose services had been rather insignificant at the time) into the army.  

The portrait gallery at Fort St.George museum has a rich collection of portrait (paintings) of Governors and Viceroys who ruled India

Fort St.George was the base of many shrewd and competent generals, which included the likes of Sir Eyre Coote and Arthur Wellesley (who later became The Duke of Wellington) besides others.

Follow the British trail in Chennai: Monuments and legacy from the British era. While Madras remained the Winter headquarters, the company's officials operated from the cool hills of Ooty during Summers.

The British East India company shifts its headquarters to Bom Baia 

1662- Portuguese Princess Catherine of  Braganza married King Charles II of England, and the islands of Bom Baia were gifted to King Charles II as dowry. 

1668- The English East India Company which was operating from Surat then, was in search for another deeper water port, so that vessels could dock- so they acquired the islands on lease from the crown for a mere annual sum of 10 pounds in gold.

Thereafter, the Company changed the name from Bom Baia (meaning 'Good Bay' in Portuguese) to BOMBAY. 

It was in this castle that Bombay was transferred to The East India company on Feb 18, 1665

1700s- Numerous Indian and British merchants flocked to the city to usher in trade. 

1782- Hornby Vellard Engineering under William Hornby initiated the project of reclaiming the 7 islands of Bombay into 1 landmass. 

1850 onwards- As Bombay grows into a major trading centre, many new constructions are undertaken by the British. Following the first railway line operations between Bombay and Thane in 1853, textile industries and factories were set up by 1880 transforming Bombay into a major city where people would flock to earn a living. 

Suggested read- British Colonial architecture and buildings of Bombay.

The East India company shifts its headquarters to Calcutta 

At the time, Bengal Subah*, that included West Bengal, present-day Bangladesh and some regions of Bihar, Jharkhand and Orissa were part of Mughal dominion headed by a Subhedar (ie. Imperial Governor or Viceroy). Bengal was a thriving trading region, with textile and ship-building as it's major industry and silk and cotton its primary exports. Ibrahim Khan II, the Subhedar during the reign of Emperor Aurangzeb permitted the French and British to conduct trade activities in Bengal. In 1717, the British gaining an edge over the French, were granted complete exemption from paying customs duties by Mughal emperor Farrukhsiyar. 

*Subahs- top-level provinces

The Silk Merchants, Artist- Edwin Lord Weeks. This 1880s painting gives an impression of early India

1690- More power to the East India company 

Charles II introduced a series of 5 Acts empowering the EIC with~ (1) the authority to autonomous territorial acquisitions (2) mint money (3) the right to command forts, troops and form alliances (4) to declare war and peace and (5) to exercise civil and criminal jurisdiction over the acquired areas.

1690- After receiving a firman from Mughal emperor Aurangzeb granting permission to build a fort and conduct trade, the company set up a new base in Calcutta. The construction of the fort was executed in 1696 under the orders of Sir John Goldsborough. Calcutta thus became the 3rd major trading post for the EIC.

Job Charnock was a sincere administrator of the British East India company. He was resolute in establishing Calcutta as the next headquarters 

💡So now there were 3 presidency towns for the purpose of British trade : BOMBAY, MADRAS & CALCUTTA 

💡Fort William, Kolkata is presently under the jurisdiction of the Indian army's Eastern Command. As such entry is restricted.

The Nawab of Bengal clashes with The British EIC 

1700- Murshid Quli Khan who was Aurangzeb's trusted financial advisor and prime minister of Bengal emerged as a powerful figure in the region, thereby obliging the Mughal court to elevate him as the 1st Nawab of Bengal. Quli Khan, feeling unsafe from his adversaries in Dhaka, moved his diwani office to a centrally located place in Bengal; namely, Murshidabad (named after him). From here he had the advantage of keeping a close vigil on the European trading companies posted along the banks of the Ganges. After Aurangzeb's death in 1707, and even despite the Mughal Empire sliding into decline, Quli Khan continued to send part of the revenue collected from the prosperous Bengal Subah to the Mughal Imperial treasury. 

1756- A succession of Nawabs followed Murshid Quli Khan, before Siraj-ud-Daulah became the next Nawab of Bengal on 9 April 1756. The Bengal  Nawabs did not approve European companies like the Mughals had in the past. As the British EIC prospered from trade due to Mughal patronage, Siraj-ud-Daulah's resentment grew on account of the privilege of customs exemption granted to the British by his predecessor Farrukhsiyar, as also the company's militarisation efforts. 

The Fall of Calcutta 

Then on 20 June 1656, the Nawab's forces captured the EIC trade post at Cossimbazar, before proceeding to lay siege on Calcutta.  The British were caught completely off-guard and admitted defeat, as the Nawab of Bengal recaptured the city of Calcutta. 146 company prisoners were stuffed into a tiny room at Fort William (infamously called as the Black Hole of Kolkata), out of which only 23 survived.

British retaliation at The Battle of Plassey (23 June 1757)

British East India company [headed by Robert Clive]

V/z

Bengal Subah + Forces of Mir Jaffar + French alliance of the Nawab 

Robert Clive was a bundle of nerves and a dejected writer at the time when he joined the services of the East India company in Madras. It is said that he was unlucky in committing suicide within the walls of Fort St.George before Major Lawrence Stringer roped him into the company's army. Clive eventually turned up lucky in war. He won the initial wars for the Company in Madras and then at Plassey. 

Mir Jaffar was Siraj-ud-Daulah's military commander-in-chief with a secret desire to become the next Nawab of Bengal. His defection to the enemy side during the Battle of Plassey is considered as the turning point of British rule in India. 

In other words the victory of the British East India company was made possible only because Mir Jaffar defected to the British side.

💡The British adopted an excellent strategy of allying with ambitious-minded or disgruntled Nawabs, princes and military generals, promising them privileges and security incase they rebelled.

Mir Jaffar had recently been demoted by Siraj-ud-Daulah, and therefore harbored resentment. Robert Clive, realising his disadvantageous position against the Nawab's forces that clearly outnumbered his own, bribed Mir Jaffar and also promised to make him the next Nawab of Bengal.  

After Mir Jaffar's defection, the battle lasted less than 12 hours. The Nawab's forces were dislodged from Fort William and Calcutta was reoccupied. The Battle of Plassey was a decisive victory for the British. Siraj-ud-Daulah was captured by Mir Jaffar (r. 2 July 1757- 20 Oct 1760) while trying to escape and got executed on 2 July 1757.  

1759- Mir Jaffar, realising his position as a British subordinate no better than his tenure with Siraj-ud-Daulah, took things into his own hands and attempted to rouse the Dutch company against the British. Here too Robert Clive took an offensive stand and defeated the Dutch in the Battle of Chinsura (25 Nov 1759). Thereafter, Mir Jaffar was replaced by Mir Qassim (r. 20 Oct 1769- 7 July 1763) as the new puppet Nawab of Bengal. 

Oct 1760- Mir Qassim ceded Chittagong, Burdhan and Midnapore to the EIC. But like Siraj-ud-Daulah, he too exhibited an independent spirit and conducted offensive attacks on British positions. In a final show of resistance against British East India company at the Battle of Buxar (22 Oct 1765), Mir Qassim, alongwith Shah Alam II of the declining Mughal empire and Shuja-ud-Daula of Audh were defeated, thus paving the way for British expansion in India. Mir Qassim, himself slipped into obscurity until his death on 8 May 1777.  

The GREAT BENGAL FAMINE of 1770

During the period of dual governance; wherein, the real power rested with EIC but the administration and governance was taken care of by the Nawab of Bengal, the infamous GREAT BENGAL FAMINE of 1770 struck. 2 to 10 million unfortunate lives were lost on account of the famine. Robert Clive received severe criticism in England for the mismanagement of The Great Bengal famine 

1860s Bengal Presidency jurisdiction  

The Nizamat (local rule of Bengal Subah) came to an end in 1793. Bengal fell completely into the hands of the East India company who established it as their Bengal Presidency. Warren Hastings became the first Governor-General of the Bengal Presidency, and served from 1772- 1785. 

Warren Hastings was an amicable associate of Robert Clive, and equally shared his view that the 3 independent Presidencies; namely, Madras, Bombay and Calcutta- get consolidated as one. This goal was finally realised with the Regulating Act of 1773, whereby Bombay and Madras were brought under the fold of Bengal Presidency, and Calcutta served as the capital city.

Suggested read- Top things to do in Kolkata: former British capital of Calcutta 

Further reading 📖

The Pursuit for Trade monopoly 

With the advent of the Industrial revolution around 1760 to 1820-1840, it was clear that England was surging far ahead of its European counterparts. The demand for raw goods and the need to sustain trade brought new challenges such as; the need to maintain troops to counter its European trade rivals and other adversaries. 

With the decline of the Mughal Empire, several new autonomous states were born. Both European parties allied with enemy states of the other in the pursuit of trade supremacy, and consequently meddled with the local politics of the land. 

The dominant rulers in Peninsular India at the time were~ 

✳️ The Nizam of Hyderabad on the Coromandel coast

✳️ The Nizam of Carnatic (Arcot), southern Coromandel coast, and

✳️ The Sultans of Mysore 

 

The British succeeded in allying with the Nizam of Hyderabad and Nawab of Carnatic amongst others. But the sharpest thorn by their side were the Sultans of Mysore~ Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan 

This resulted in a series of wars (1766 to 1799) that I have explained at length in my next blogpost- Mysore's British History and the fall of Tipu Sultan 

The Pursuit for Governance 

The Regulating Act of 1773 was abrogated, and replaced by the Pitt's India Act of 1784 that was drafted during the Prime ministership of  William Pitt. It was aimed to empower the crown [ie. Great Britain] in governing India. In other words Great Britain permitted itself to intervene into India's political matters.

Territories gained by The East India company were to be called as THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN INDIA. This Act remained in force until 1858.

Despite many wars, there wasn't a single decisive battle for contesting complete authority over India. But after the death of Tipu Sultan, the British would face their next powerful adversary ~ namely, The Marathas !

The 2nd Anglo-Maratha war victory overcame this last hurdle in the formation of the British Raj. The 3rd Anglo-Maratha war (1817 to 1818) finally brought an end to Maratha dominance over the Indian subcontinent. The Peshwas were sent into exile. Much of the Maratha heartland came under the direct control of British rule. 

The British East India company consolidated its gains primarily by 2 methods~ 

A) Direct Annexation of the territories, thereby bringing it under the fold of the British Raj ie. British India. These annexed territories included ~ 

✳️ North-Western provinces

The North-Western provinces were established in 1836 and included

▪️ Rohilkhand ie basically areas falling

mostly in U.P.▪️Gorakhpur, U.P.

▪️The Doab region (1801) & Delhi (1803)

DOAB- is the flat alluvial tract between the rivers Ganga and Yamuna. The British Raj split it into 3 parts for the purpose of administration~ 

< Upper Doab areas >   

Dehradun and Haridwar in present-day state of UTTARAKHAND and large areas of Uttar Pradesh. After Dehradun was captured by the British in 1816, they founded the hill stations of Landour and Mussoorie to escape the scorching heat of the plains. While <Middle Doab and Lower Doab> encompass regions of U.P.

Above image- The British Imperial forest school at Dehradun was founded in 1864.

With the defeat of Sikh empire following the Anglo-Sikh wars, more territories were annexed by the British, such as~

▪️Ahom kingdom of Assam (1828)

▪️Sindh (1843)▪️Punjab the North-west frontier provinces and ▪️ Kashmir 

B) The second method was by entering into a subsidiary alliance with the Princely states, whereby the EIC would maintain its army to protect the Maharaja/ Nawabs against any external threat. In return the Maharaja would pay for the maintenance of the army. Eg. The Kingdom of Mysore. This was a form of Indirect rule, plus it saved the company from spending.